Primitive pathfinders: cars that paved the way for today's electric cars

Almost every major auto-maker regardless of size or budget has an electrification plan.

The ones that don’t are in trouble, according to a crushing majority of analysts.

If you’ve been following the auto industry for long enough you’ll recall this isn’t the first time executives and government officials have encouraged the development of battery-powered cars in recent memory. Europe and North America both experienced a fairly strong electric car resurgence in the late 1980s that peaked during the 1990s. Here are some of the cars that came out of it on both sides of the pond.

The situation in Europe

The 1973 oil crisis left an indelible mark on the European automotive industry. Companies like BMW, Volkswagen, Volvo, Fiat and Mercedes-Benz accelerated efforts to find marketable alternatives to petrol- and diesel-powered cars. Going entirely electric was just one of several solutions engineers examined. Mercedes and Volkswagen also dabbled in plug-in hybrid powertrains, among other technologies.

Electric prototypes developed during the 1970s were impractical at best because they were too heavy, excruciatingly slow, and offered very little range. They worked in the sense that they could move passengers from A to B but they were ill-suited to anything resembling mass-production. As technology advanced, however, the prospect of a volume-produced electric car became more realistic and companies began looking at ways to put them in the hands of customers in real-world conditions.

Note: Fiat X1/23 prototype pictured.

Renault Express (1985)

Renault began small-scale production of an electric Express (known as the Rapid in England) in 1985. Engineers replaced the four-cylinder engine with an electric motor and raised the cargo compartment to clear up space for 18 nickel-iron batteries. The modifications also included fitting a strengthened rear axle and upgrading the braking system to cope with the extra weight.

Production remained low; in hindsight, the electric Express occupied the murky space that separates prototypes from production models. Nearly every example ended up in the hands of government agencies in France like the post office and, fittingly, the nation’s power company. Renault also sold a small number of electric Master vans.

Note: standard Express pictured.

Volkswagen Golf II Citystromer (1985)

Volkswagen made several electric prototypes based on a diverse selection of models including the Bus, the Polo and the original Golf. It even displayed an electric Bus at the 1977 Frankfurt motor show and received about 20 orders for it before the end of the event.

The Elektro-Golf prototype made in 1976 paved the way for the Golf I Citystromer built in 1981 and the Golf II Citystromer from 1985. Volkswagen made about 70 examples of the second-generation Citystromer to test the technology in real-world conditions. Its 40-mile range and 60mph top speed made it ill-suited for highway driving, an unforgivable foible in a nation that prides itself on its stretches of limit-less autobahn. The firm also manufactured a handful of Jetta models with the same drivetrain.

Volkswagen sold some of the Citystromer prototypes to private buyers at the end of the pilot programs.

Peugeot J5 (1989)

In the late 1980s, Peugeot aggressively wanted to position itself as the leader in the electric car segment. After turning the 104 and, later, the 205 into experimental electric cars, it started production of a battery-powered J5 van designed for fleet buyers like big corporations and local governments. At the time, the firm boasted it could build diesel- and electricity-powered vans on the same assembly line.

The electric J5 weighed a not-insignificant 2390kg, about 1000kg more than a diesel-burning model (pictured). The extra mass reduced its top speed to 50mph; it consequently took 12.5sec to reach 31mph from a stop. Lackadaisical acceleration didn’t stop EDF, France’s then-state-owned power company, from ordering 50 vans in 1990 and 250 more the following year.

Citroen C15 and C25 (1989)

Citroen benefited from the electric technology developed by parent company Peugeot. At the dawn of the 1990s, its line-up included an electric version of the C25 identical to the aforementioned J5 and a battery-powered C15 with a smaller battery pack installed directly behind the passenger compartment. Both were produced in strictly limited numbers and neither ended up in the hands of private users.

Note: C15D pictured.

Fiat Panda Elettra (1990)

Fiat’s research into electric cars began in 1962. Over the following years it electrified its 500, 850, 1100, 124 and 900T models but none made it beyond the prototype stage.

The Panda took the company’s electrification efforts to the next level. Developed jointly with Steyr-Puch, the Panda Elettra offered up to 60 miles of driving range at low speeds with the standard lead-acid batteries, or up to 111 miles when equipped with the nickel-cadmium battery pack Fiat offered at an extra cost. It also came with regenerative braking technology, an innovative feature for the era.

Fiat inevitably ran into the same issues as its rivals. Considerably heavier than with a four-cylinder, the Panda Elettra accelerated at a glacial pace until it reached a top speed of 40mph. And, it was strictly a two-seater because the battery pack took up the space normally occupied by the rear seats.

Fiat’s archives department doesn’t have production figures for the model.

Fiat Cinquencento Elettra (1992)

The electric Panda had a formative influence on the Cinquecento Elettra. Both cars used the same electric motor but the Cinquecento received a five-speed manual transmission instead of the Panda’s four-speed unit. Fiat again offered either a standard lead-acid battery pack or an optional nickel-cadmium unit that unlocked additional driving range. The company also noted the nickel-cadmium pack lasted much longer than the lead unit because it could handle up to 2000 charging cycles versus 600.

The Cinquecento notably received a mini-computer that provided the driver with vital information like the motor’s real-time energy consumption, the most efficient cruising speed and the precise driving range left in the battery pack. Looking back, this technology was well ahead of its time because it took much of the guesswork out of driving an electric car.

Skoda Eltra 151 (1992)

Skoda showed a surprising amount of foresight when it developed an electric prototype named Shortcut in 1990. The tall, almost van-like body remained at the prototype stage but the electric powertrain equipped a small series of production models based on the Favorit (pictured). An electric pickup joined the line-up before the end of 1992.

Most of the production run went to Switzerland, though the Czech postal service purchased a handful of cars. Production and development work both ended after Volkswagen fully absorbed Skoda in 1993.

Volkswagen Golf III Citystromer (1993)

Decades of research finally bore fruit. Volkswagen announced its first regular-production electric car, the Golf III Citystromer, in 1992 and started building the model the following year. The German company teamed up with Siemens and Varta to design a powertrain with up to 55 miles of range from a lead-acid battery pack. The Citystromer came with a brake energy recuperation system.

Production ended in 1996 after Volkswagen made approximately 120 examples. Most of them went to fleet operators like Deutsche Telekom before ending up in the hands of private buyers. The company’s archives department estimates about 50 examples are still used daily in 2018.

Citroen AX (1994)

Citroen applied the lessons learned from the C15 to develop a better electric drivetrain and install it in an AX. The model made its debut in 1994 and production began the following year. Advances in battery technology gave the AX more driving range while permitting quicker recharging times. The firm quoted a top speed of 75mph and pegged its maximum range at approximately 60 miles.

French contract manufacturer Heuliez made nearly 700 examples of the electric AX for Citroen. Mass production was never the brand’s intention; instead, the AX served as a rolling laboratory built largely to test new technology in real-world conditions.

Peugeot 106/Citroen Saxo (1995)

By the mid-1990s, Peugeot felt relatively comfortable about the idea of producing an electric car for the general public. It wasted no time in improving the AX’s powertrain and stuffing it in the 106. The Citroen Saxo received the same treatment. Both models were cars the firm wanted to credibly sell as alternatives to petrol-powered models, not prototypes haphazardly cobbled together in a hangar on the far outskirts of Paris.

Peugeot improved usability and range was on its way up, too, but electric technology continued to command a sizable premium that made the 106/Saxo duo far too expensive, especially once buyers factored the cost of hiring the batteries into their budget. Production ended in 2003 after Heuliez made 3540 examples of the Saxo and 2270 of the 106.

Renault Clio (1995)

Renault unveiled a prototype named Elektro-Clio at the 1991 Frankfurt motor show. Like Volkswagen, it asked for Siemens’ help while developing the drivetrain. Rumours claimed the model would arrive in showrooms in 1993 but Renault pushed back the launch until 1995 as it debated whether to make such a significant investment for the textbook definition of a low-volume car. Fitting a 300kg battery pack required installing a rear axle from the Rapid and reinforcing parts of the body, among other changes.

Motorists had to hire the battery pack from Renault for a price that wholly offset the cost benefits of not paying for petrol. Renault nonetheless managed to sell several hundred examples of the car.

Fiat Seicento Elettra (1998)

The Seicento Elettra represented a significant leap forward for Fiat’s electric technology. Engineers installed the battery pack under the rear seat to carve out space for four passengers and a reasonably spacious boot. And, in an unexpected twist of fate, the Seicento returned to its rear-engined roots. Fiat shoehorned the motor under the boot floor to zap the rear wheels.

The Seicento Elettra also received a push-button automatic transmission instead of a manual unit like the Cinquecento and the Panda. Buyers hoping to never visit a petrol station again were either disappointed or cold. They needed to fill a small tank with diesel to power the car’s heating system.

Fiat made several hundred examples of the Seicento Elettra. Most examples ended up in government fleets across Italy. The Sicilian city of Palermo notably purchased 88 cars in 1998 in a bid to curb air pollution. Officials decommissioned them when the maintenance contract Palmero signed with Fiat expired, left them for dead in a big parking lot for several years and ultimately sent each one to auction with a starting price of 100 euros.

The situation in America

The oil crisis hit America – and, specifically, Detroit – hard, too, but the aftershocks were less powerful than in Europe. The shift towards electric vehicles began in earnest when the California Air Resources Board (which uniquely has the right to bypass the federal government and set state-specific emissions standards) passed a zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate in 1990. It required that 2% of all new vehicles sold in the Golden State in 1998 be ZEVs and already planned to increase that threshold to 10% in 2003.

The message was clear: go green or go home. Going home meant stepping out of one of America’s largest car markets so, at first, auto-makers saw the mandate as a necessary encumbrance and reluctantly invested in electric technology. They later discovered they could sue CARB and, in a Hollywood-esque turn of events, won with the White House’s help. CARB ended up delaying and relaxing the mandate, giving auto-makers a reprieve from the need to develop expensive technology they often argued consumers weren’t ready for – or even remotely interested in.

Note: 1990 GM Impact concept pictured.

Dodge TEVan (1993)

Dodge began developing a battery-powered minivan in the early 1990s. It introduced the model, which it called TEVan, in 1993. Based on the Caravan (pictured), it was built as an electric vehicle from the very start of the production process on the same assembly line as the gasoline-powered models. It offered between 50 and 80 miles of range depending on the type of battery pack it came with.

Dodge made approximately 56 examples of the TEVan. Utility companies in New York and California leased a majority of the production run. Dodge never sold the TEVan to the general public but used examples occasionally ended up in private hands during the 1990s.

General Motors EV1 (1996)

The General Motors EV1 often gets credit for being the first modern electric car produced in America in significant quantities. Designed with batteries in mind from the get-go, the coupe wore a sleek, futuristic design that undeniably drew inspiration from Saturn’s styling language but GM decided not to assign it to one of its brands.

Early cars used a lead-acid battery pack that provided up to 60 miles of driving range. Later models received an upgraded pack made by Panasonic which increased driving range to a maximum of 100 miles. Finally, an available nickel-metal hybride battery pack boosted range to 160 miles.

Motorists in a handful of American cities were eligible to lease the EV. GM made it clear they were participating in a real-world engineering evaluation and warned it could take back the cars whenever it wanted by simply ending the lease agreement. That’s exactly what happened. Citing economic unviability, GM recalled all 1117 cars in 2003 and later crushed most of the production run.

Chevrolet S-10 Electric (1997)

Chevrolet electrified the S-10 pickup truck using components borrowed from the EV1. This created a front-wheel drive compact pickup with a maximum driving range of about 40 miles, though an upgraded battery pack added to the list of options in 1998 bumped that figure up to around 80 miles.

Production ended in 1998 after Chevrolet built 492 examples of the truck. Each one featured a regular cab and a short box. Most were leased to fleet buyers across the United States (including the Air Force and power companies) and destroyed when they were returned to General Motors at the end of the lease. Surprisingly, 60 examples were sold to customers and some still survive in 2018.

Honda EV Plus (1997)

The Honda EV Plus stood out as one of the most advanced electric cars available new in America in the late 1990s. Designers went to great lengths to make it look like an electric vehicle inside and out; it even came with a fully digital instrument cluster. The company ruled out taking the much simpler, cheaper route of stuffing a motor and a battery pack in an otherwise stock Civic or Accord early on in the project.

The EV Plus could drive for about 130 miles on one charge in ideal conditions. Buyers more concerned with time than distance could reach a top speed in the vicinity of 80mph. The list of standard features included a regenerative braking system, ABS brakes, and dual front airbags.

This all came at a substantial cost. Honda estimated the EV Plus would cost $53,900 (about $84,500 in 2018) to purchase outright so it offered the model through a lease program. 340 motorists agreed to pay $455 a month ($713 in 2018) to drive the EV Plus for three years. Honda stopped making the model in 1999 as it prepared to release the original Insight and destroyed a majority of the production run.

Nissan Altra (1997)

The Altra, a little-known branch of the Nissan family tree, was merely a compliance car launched to keep California regulators happy but its sheet metal hid surprisingly advanced engineering. It represented the first mainstream attempt at building an electric car with a lithium-ion battery pack, a chemistry that promised to save weight while boosting range.

Nissan described the Altra as a sedan, a minivan and an SUV all rolled into one when it introduced the model at the 1997 Los Angeles auto show. It quoted a driving range of up to 80 miles; in comparison, the 2018 Leaf’s range checks in at about 150 miles.

Nissan placed about 200 examples of the Altra in the hands of fleet buyers. Users included the Southern California Edison Company, Pacific Gas and Electric Company and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. The Santa Monica Police Department also used the Altra as a parking enforcement vehicle.

Toyota RAV4 EV (1997)

Forward-thinking as always, Toyota chose to base its first production electric car on the RAV4 SUV. It received an electric motor in the engine bay and a battery pack installed under the passenger compartment. It stood out visually with model-specific stickers on the front doors, vents in the quarter panels and a smooth rear door without a spare tire.

The original RAV4 EV offered up to 120 miles of range. Early models went exclusively to businesses and fleet buyers in California but Toyota gave private consumers the chance to buy one starting in 2003. It sold 328 units before pulling the plug on the project. It later destroyed most of the ones it leased.

Ford Th!nk (1999)

Ford took a decidedly different path to electrification than its rivals. Though it made prototypes based on regular-production models, and fleet buyers could purchase a battery-powered Ranger between 1998 and 2002, the first electric car it made for the public took the form of a small two-seater that looked like a cross between a Smart Fortwo and a used golf cart. It was designed in Norway by Think, a company Ford briefly controlled around the turn of the millennium.

America motorists who leased a Th!nk reported many problems, including not being able to achieve the 50-mile range Ford promised. The firm ended production prematurely and sold its chunk of Think in 2003.

When a new generation of electric models arrived in the early 2010s, the auto-makers that built them put a tremendous amount of effort into keeping the terrifying specter of cars like the Th!nk away from consumers.